Table of Contents
Staring at lines of code for hours on end isn’t just mentally taxing—it can take a serious physical toll. That persistent wrist ache, the nagging shoulder tension, the morning stiffness that makes reaching for the mouse feel like a chore… these aren’t just minor annoyances for developers. They’re warning signs of repetitive strain injuries silently creeping in, threatening productivity and long-term career health. The standard flat keyboard, designed for general office use, often becomes an unwitting accomplice in this daily strain, forcing wrists into unnatural ulnar deviation and shoulders into a constant, subtle hunch. Ignoring these signals isn’t an option when your livelihood depends on your hands and focus.
The good news? A well-chosen ergonomic keyboard isn’t a luxury upgrade; it’s a fundamental investment in your most valuable tools: your body and your ability to create. Moving beyond the familiar flat layout opens the door to designs specifically engineered to align your hands, wrists, and arms with your body’s natural posture. This shift can dramatically reduce muscular fatigue, prevent the onset of debilitating conditions, and ultimately lead to more comfortable, sustainable, and even faster coding sessions. Understanding the core principles and features that define true ergonomic keyboards is the crucial first step toward reclaiming comfort without sacrificing performance at your workstation.
Top 10 Ergonomic Keyboards for Developers
Detailed Product Reviews
1. VEILZOR Wired Ergonomic Keyboard, 7-Color Backlit USB Computer Keyboard with Wrist Rest, Wave Keys, Phone Holder, Lighted Keyboard Compatible with PC, Laptop, Windows, and Mac
Overview: The VEILZOR Wired Ergonomic Keyboard targets night workers and gamers with its wave-key layout, integrated phone holder, and vibrant RGB backlighting. This wired solution prioritizes stability and comfort for extended typing sessions.
What Makes It Stand Out: Its 7-color backlighting with dedicated constant-brightness modes (M1/M2) is ideal for low-light environments, while the leather wrist rest and wave-key design actively reduce wrist strain. The built-in phone stand enhances multitasking, and seamless Windows/Mac compatibility adds versatility.
Value for Money: Priced competitively for an ergonomic wired keyboard, it delivers exceptional utility with no batteries or pairing hassles. The braided cable and robust build justify the cost over basic models, though premium wireless alternatives exist at higher price points.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Reliable wired connection; effective ergonomic layout; useful phone holder; adjustable backlighting. Weaknesses: Wrist rest isn’t removable; non-mechanical keys may lack tactile feedback for some; RGB customization is limited to preset colors.
Bottom Line: A practical, affordable ergonomic keyboard for wired users prioritizing comfort and low-light usability, though RGB enthusiasts may desire deeper customization.
2. ProtoArc Bluetooth Ergonomic Keyboard, Wireless Ergonomic Keyboard with Separate Number Pad, Dual Bluetooth and USB, Hard Palm Rest, Split Design, Rechargeable for Windows/Mac/Android
Overview: The ProtoArc Bluetooth Ergonomic Keyboard features a split design, separate number pad, and hard palm rest, catering to users seeking wireless flexibility and posture improvement across multiple devices.
What Makes It Stand Out: The detachable number pad offers workspace adaptability, while triple-device switching via Bluetooth/USB receiver enables seamless transitions between systems. The non-removable hard leather palm rest provides durable wrist support, and adjustable tilt legs accommodate varied desk setups.
Value for Money: Its multi-device capability and split design deliver strong value for hybrid workers. While pricier than basic keyboards, the productivity gains from device switching and ergonomic benefits justify the investment compared to single-use alternatives.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Excellent multi-device support; customizable tilt angles; sturdy palm rest; clean split-key layout. Weaknesses: Hard wrist rest lacks cushioning; rechargeable battery requires periodic charging; split design has a moderate learning curve.
Bottom Line: Highly recommended for multi-device professionals needing ergonomic support, though those preferring plush wrist rests should consider alternatives.
3. Logitech Ergo K860 Wireless Ergonomic Keyboard - Split Keyboard, Wrist Rest, Natural Typing, Stain-Resistant Fabric, Bluetooth and USB Connectivity, Compatible with Windows/Mac, Black
Overview: Logitech’s Ergo K860 is a premium wireless split keyboard with a curved frame and memory foam wrist rest, engineered to reduce muscle strain through scientifically validated ergonomics.
What Makes It Stand Out: Ergonomist certification and a unique sloping design significantly cut wrist bending (25% less) while boosting support (54% more). The stain-resistant fabric, adjustable palm lift (0°/-4°/-7°), and pillowed memory foam rest set it apart as a therapeutic-grade solution.
Value for Money: Positioned at a premium price, it excels for chronic pain sufferers or corporate wellness programs. The durability, certified benefits, and dual connectivity (Bluetooth/USB) offer long-term ROI versus cheaper, uncertified models.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Clinically proven posture improvement; superior wrist rest comfort; robust build quality; versatile tilt adjustment. Weaknesses: High cost; bulky footprint; split layout requires significant adaptation time.
Bottom Line: The top choice for serious ergonomic needs despite the price, ideal for users prioritizing health over budget constraints.
4. MEETION Wireless Ergonomic Keyboard, Wave Keys Firm Wrist Rest for Natural Typing, 2.4G USB-A Cordless Receiver and USB-C Adapter, Ergo Computer Keyboard Compatible with Windows/Mac/PC/Laptop, Black
Overview: MEETION’s wireless ergonomic keyboard blends wave-key ergonomics with a traditional layout, targeting users seeking comfort without the steep learning curve of split designs.
What Makes It Stand Out: Its wave-key profile mimics natural finger movement while retaining standard key placement, easing the transition from conventional keyboards. The built-in hard plastic wrist rest ensures stable alignment, and plug-and-play 2.4GHz connectivity avoids Bluetooth pairing issues. Auto-sleep mode extends battery life efficiently.
Value for Money: An affordable entry into ergonomic typing, especially for those wary of split keyboards. The lack of Bluetooth limits device flexibility, but reliability and quick adaptation make it a smart budget pick.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Intuitive wave-key layout; sturdy wrist support; energy-efficient; compact footprint. Weaknesses: Hard (non-cushioned) wrist rest; no Bluetooth; batteries not included; receiver storage is inconvenient.
Bottom Line: Best for ergonomic newcomers wanting familiarity and value, though power users may miss Bluetooth and softer wrist support.
5. Logitech Wave Keys Wireless Ergonomic Keyboard with Cushioned Palm Rest, Comfortable Natural Typing, Easy-Switch, Bluetooth, Logi Bolt Receiver, for Multi-OS, Windows/Mac - Graphite
Overview: Logitech’s Wave Keys offers a compact, wave-shaped ergonomic keyboard with a memory foam palm rest, designed to reduce shoulder strain by bringing the mouse closer to the body.
What Makes It Stand Out: The compact size optimizes desk ergonomics, while the memory foam palm rest delivers plush all-day comfort. Dual connectivity (Bluetooth/Logi Bolt) and Logi Options+ app customization enable personalized shortcuts and seamless OS switching (Windows/Mac).
Value for Money: Priced moderately, it balances Logitech’s reliability with genuine ergonomic benefits. The app-driven customization adds significant utility over rivals, though the compact layout may deter number-pad users.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Excellent palm support; intuitive compact design; robust multi-OS compatibility; app-enhanced functionality. Weaknesses: No dedicated number pad; app required for full customization; compact size may frustrate full-layout loyalists.
Bottom Line: A compelling mid-range ergonomic keyboard for app-savvy users prioritizing comfort and space efficiency, especially in multi-OS environments.
6. Arteck Split Ergonomic Keyboard with Cushioned Wrist and Palm Rest, 2.4G USB Wireless Comfortable Natural Ergonomic Split Keyboard, for Windows Computer Desktop Laptop
Overview: The Arteck Split Ergonomic Keyboard is a wireless solution designed to alleviate typing strain through its natural split layout and integrated comfort features, targeting Windows users seeking ergonomic relief without complex setup. What Makes It Stand Out: Its standout features include the genuinely split design promoting neutral wrist alignment, a generously cushioned wrist rest, and exceptional 6-month battery life on a single charge—uncommon in wireless ergonomic models. The plug-and-play 2.4G USB receiver ensures immediate compatibility. Value for Money: Priced mid-range, it offers strong value by combining essential ergonomic benefits with long-term convenience (rechargeable battery, 24-month warranty). While cheaper wired options exist, the wireless freedom and battery longevity justify the premium for desk-bound professionals. Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Highly comfortable split design with plush rest; effortless setup; outstanding battery life; compact footprint. Weaknesses: Lacks backlighting; limited OS compatibility (Windows-only); membrane keys offer less tactile feedback than mechanical alternatives; no multi-device pairing. Bottom Line: An excellent wireless ergonomic choice for Windows users prioritizing comfort and hassle-free operation, though those needing backlighting or cross-platform use should explore alternatives.
7. Perixx PERIBOARD-512B Wired Ergonomic Keyboard - Split Keyboard, Wrist Rest, Natural Typing - Wired USB Connectivity - US English - Black
Overview: The Perixx PERIBOARD-512B is a wired ergonomic keyboard featuring a fixed split layout and curved key rows, designed for users seeking a durable, tactile typing experience with reduced strain during extended use. What Makes It Stand Out: It distinguishes itself with its “old-school” curved row design promoting natural hand posture, long 4.2mm key travel delivering tactile brown-switch-like feedback, and exceptional 20-million-keystroke durability. The inclusion of a removable wrist rest and multiple color options adds versatility. Value for Money: Positioned affordably, it offers exceptional value for tactile typing enthusiasts. The robust build quality and mechanical-like feel rival pricier mechanical keyboards, making it a cost-effective solution for long-hour typists needing reliability and comfort. Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Superior tactile feedback and key travel; highly durable construction; effective curved split design; includes wrist rest; multiple color choices. Weaknesses: Wired only (limits desk flexibility); requires a 1-2 week adjustment period; no backlighting; limited OS feature support compared to wireless models. Bottom Line: Highly recommended for users wanting mechanical-like comfort and durability in a dedicated ergonomic keyboard at a budget-friendly price, ideal for stationary workstations.
8. Logitech Wave Keys & Lift Vertical Mouse - Ergonomic Wireless Keyboard and Mouse Combo - with Cushioned Palm Rest, Easy-Switch, Bluetooth, for Multi-OS, Windows/Mac - Graphite
Overview: Logitech’s Wave Keys Combo pairs a uniquely wavy keyboard with a 57° vertical mouse, offering a cohesive ergonomic solution focused on holistic hand, wrist, and forearm alignment for multi-OS users. What Makes It Stand Out: The integrated system is key: the keyboard’s wave design and memory foam palm rest complement the Lift mouse’s natural 57° angle, significantly reducing pronation. Bluetooth/Easy-Switch connectivity for multi-OS (Windows, Mac, Android) and the plush palm rest elevate its appeal beyond single peripherals. Value for Money: As a premium combo, its price reflects the bundled value. Purchasing equivalent high-quality ergonomic keyboard and mouse separately often costs more, making this a justified investment for those committed to a unified, comfortable setup across devices. Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Exceptional holistic ergonomic design (keyboard + mouse synergy); superb palm/wrist support; seamless multi-device/multi-OS switching; quiet, comfortable typing; strong build quality. Weaknesses: High price point; palm rest isn’t removable; mouse size may not suit large hands; no backlighting on keyboard. Bottom Line: A top-tier recommendation for users seeking a complete, premium ergonomic input solution that significantly enhances comfort and productivity across multiple devices.
9. Backlit Bluetooth Ergonomic Keyboard, ProtoArc EK01 Plus Full Size Wireless Split Keyboard with Dual Bluetooth and USB, Cushioned Wrist Rest, Rechargeable for Windows/Mac/Android, Grey Black
Overview: The ProtoArc EK01 Plus is a versatile full-size wireless split keyboard featuring adjustable backlighting, multi-device connectivity, and a cushioned rest, catering to users across Windows, Mac, and Android platforms needing flexibility and comfort. What Makes It Stand Out: Its standout features are the combination of soft white adjustable backlighting (with smart power-saving), seamless 3-device switching via Bluetooth and 2.4G USB, and broad OS compatibility. The full-size layout with scooped keys and substantial 2000mAh battery further enhance its utility. Value for Money: Priced competitively in the mid-to-upper range, it delivers excellent value through its feature density. The backlighting, multi-OS support, and dual connectivity offer functionality often split across more expensive models, making it ideal for multi-device power users. Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Highly useful adjustable backlighting; best-in-class 3-device switching; wide OS compatibility; comfortable full-size split design; long battery life (especially backlight-off). Weaknesses: Backlight auto-shutoff can be intrusive; USB-C charging cable not included in some regions; 2.4G dongle storage is basic; no wired mode option. Bottom Line: The strongest choice for multi-platform users needing reliable backlighting and effortless device switching in a comfortable ergonomic package, despite minor power-management quirks.
10. Arteck Ergonomic USB Wired Keyboard with Cushioned Wrist & Palm Rest, Backlit 7 Colors & Adjustable Brightness Comfortable Natural Split Keyboard with 6 Feet Wire for Windows Computer Desktop Laptop
Overview: Arteck’s wired ergonomic keyboard delivers vibrant backlighting and split comfort in a plug-and-play wired package, targeting Windows users wanting visual flair and basic ergonomic support without wireless complexity. What Makes It Stand Out: It uniquely combines a split ergonomic design with 7-color LED backlighting (3 brightness levels) in an affordable wired model. The generous 6-foot cable and included plush wrist rest provide immediate comfort and setup simplicity. Value for Money: As a budget-friendly wired option, it offers great value for users prioritizing backlight aesthetics and core ergonomic benefits. The price undercuts wireless/backlit competitors significantly, making it accessible for casual ergonomic adopters or multi-PC setups. Strengths and Weaknesses: Strengths: Attractive multi-color backlighting; effective split design with comfortable rest; very easy plug-and-play setup; affordable price; long cable. Weaknesses: Wired only (limits placement); backlight colors may feel gimmicky for productivity; Windows-only focus; membrane keys lack premium feel; wrist rest is fixed (not removable). Bottom Line: A solid, budget-conscious pick for Windows users seeking colorful backlighting and fundamental ergonomic comfort in a no-fuss wired keyboard, though not for those needing advanced features or cross-platform use.
Understanding Developer-Specific Ergonomic Needs
The Unique Demands of Prolonged Coding Sessions
Developers face distinct physical challenges compared to general office workers. Extended periods of intense typing, frequent use of modifier keys (Ctrl, Alt, Shift), navigating complex IDEs, and the constant context-switching between keyboard and mouse create repetitive micro-movements that strain specific muscle groups. Standard keyboards exacerbate this by locking hands into a fixed, pronated position, increasing pressure on the median nerve and straining forearm tendons over countless keystrokes.
Common Pain Points Addressed by Ergonomic Designs
Persistent wrist pain (potentially carpal tunnel syndrome), elbow discomfort (like tennis elbow), shoulder tension, and neck strain are frequent complaints among coders. These often stem from sustained awkward postures: wrists bent sideways (ulnar deviation), palms flattened, shoulders hunched forward, and the neck craning towards the screen. Ergonomic keyboards directly target these issues by promoting neutrality—aligning hands, wrists, and forearms in a straight line, reducing static muscle load and nerve compression.
Core Ergonomic Keyboard Design Principles
Split Key Layouts: Restoring Natural Alignment
The most significant departure from standard keyboards is the split design. Separating the key clusters allows users to position each half directly in line with their shoulders, eliminating the need to bend wrists inward (ulnar deviation). This shoulder-width alignment keeps the forearm muscles in a more relaxed, neutral state, significantly reducing strain on tendons and nerves during extended typing.
Tenting: Elevating the Inner Edges
Tenting involves angling the inner edges of the split keyboard sections upwards, creating a gentle “V” shape. This mimics the natural outward rotation (supination) of the hands when resting comfortably on a desk. Proper tenting reduces pressure on the ulnar nerve (running along the pinky side of the wrist) and promotes a more open, relaxed shoulder posture, combating the “hunched coder” silhouette.
Columnar Stagger vs. Ortholinear Grids
Traditional keyboards use a row-staggered layout, forcing fingers to stretch awkwardly for certain keys. Columnar stagger arranges keys in vertical columns aligned with finger natural reach, minimizing lateral finger movement. Ortholinear grids take this further, placing every key in a strict grid pattern (no staggering at all), which some users find maximizes finger neutrality, though it requires significant adaptation, especially for common shortcut combinations.
Key Features Impacting Developer Experience
Switch Types and Tactile Feedback
The feel and sound of keypresses matter immensely during marathon coding sessions. Linear switches offer smooth, quiet travel; tactile switches provide a subtle bump for confirmation without loud noise; clicky switches offer both tactile and audible feedback. Developers often prioritize tactile or linear switches for reduced finger fatigue and quieter operation in shared spaces, though personal preference plays a major role. Actuation force (how hard you need to press) is also critical—lighter switches reduce effort but may increase typos; heavier switches offer more control but can tire fingers faster.
Programmability and Macro Support
The ability to remap keys and create macros is virtually essential for developers. Efficiently accessing complex commands, navigating IDEs, or executing repetitive tasks through custom shortcuts saves countless keystrokes and mouse movements daily. Look for keyboards with robust onboard memory for profile storage, intuitive configuration software, and support for layer switching to maximize the utility of a potentially smaller keycount.
Keycap Profile and Material
The shape (profile) of the keycaps affects finger placement and travel distance. Low-profile keys reduce finger movement but may lack feedback; higher profiles (like DSA or OEM) can offer more tactile guidance. Material matters for longevity and feel—PBT plastic resists shine and offers a slightly textured grip, while ABS is smoother but prone to becoming glossy over time. Sculpted profiles (like Cherry) guide fingers but can hinder alternative typing styles common in ergonomic layouts.
Physical Dimensions and Workspace Integration
Size Considerations: Full-Size vs. Compact Layouts
Full-size ergonomic keyboards (including numpad) offer maximum key availability but consume significant desk real estate. Tenkeyless (TKL) or 75% layouts omit the numpad, saving space without sacrificing essential navigation/function keys—often the sweet spot for developers needing arrow keys and blocks regularly. Truly compact layouts (60%, 40%) require heavy layer usage for missing keys and may not suit everyone, but maximize space for mouse movement or dual monitors.
Weight and Stability During Intense Typing
A stable typing platform is non-negotiable. Heavy keyboards or those with textured, non-slip bases prevent unwanted sliding during vigorous typing sessions, especially crucial with split designs where movement of one half can disrupt alignment. Consider the weight in relation to your desk surface and whether you need portability.
Cable Management and Connection Options
Wired connections offer zero latency and reliability—critical for precision work. Wireless options (Bluetooth, 2.4GHz dongle) provide cleaner desk setups but introduce potential latency concerns and battery management. Ensure the keyboard offers secure cable routing options if wired, or robust, multi-device wireless connectivity if preferred. Developer workflows often involve multiple machines, making multi-pairing essential.
The Critical Role of Adjustability
Adjustable Tenting and Splay Angles
One-size-fits-all rarely works for ergonomics. The ability to adjust the degree of tenting (how high the inner edges are) and splay (how wide the split is) is paramount. What feels perfect initially might need tweaking as your posture or comfort evolves. Look for models with stable, tool-free adjustment mechanisms using risers, hinges, or modular components.
Negative Tilt and Palm Rest Compatibility
A slight negative tilt (front of the keyboard lower than the back) encourages a more neutral, slightly downward-angled wrist position, reducing extension strain. Ensure the keyboard design either incorporates this naturally or allows it when used with a compatible palm rest. Palm rests themselves should only support the heel of the hand during brief pauses, not during active typing.
Evaluating Build Quality and Longevity
Frame Construction and Key Stability
A solid, rigid frame (metal or thick plastic) prevents flexing and “wobble” during typing, which can cause fatigue and inconsistent keypresses. Check for minimal key wobble (side-to-side movement)—stabilizers for larger keys (like spacebar) should be robust to prevent rattling. This impacts both comfort and the perceived quality of every keystroke.
Durability of Keycaps and Switches
PBT keycaps are generally superior for long-term use, resisting shine and abrasion far better than ABS, especially important for frequently pressed keys (like Enter, Shift, common letters). Switch durability (rated in millions of keystrokes) is usually high across reputable brands, but consistent feel over years matters. Research the specific switch type’s reputation for longevity and potential issues like “ping” (resonant noise).
The Importance of Hands-On Testing
Why Specifications Aren’t Enough
No amount of reading can replicate the feel of a keyboard under your specific fingers. Key spacing, switch force, keycap texture, and the overall “hand fit” are deeply personal. What feels perfect for one developer might cause discomfort for another due to hand size, finger length, or existing conditions. Specifications provide a starting point, but tactile experience is irreplaceable.
Finding Opportunities to Try Before You Buy
Check if local office supply stores or electronics retailers carry ergonomic models for testing. Some specialized ergonomic retailers offer extended trial periods (30+ days). If possible, connect with colleagues who use ergonomic keyboards to try theirs. Pay attention to how your hands and shoulders feel after 10-15 minutes of simulated typing, not just the initial impression.
Budget Considerations and Value Assessment
Beyond the Initial Price Tag
While ergonomic keyboards often carry a premium price, frame this as an investment in your health and career longevity. Consider the potential cost of medical treatments, lost productivity due to pain, or even career disruption from untreated RSI. A higher-quality, durable keyboard that lasts a decade provides significantly better value than multiple cheaper models that fail or don’t solve your issues.
Identifying Features Worth the Investment
Prioritize adjustability, build quality, and switch type based on your core needs. Programmability is often a high-value feature for developers. Don’t pay for excessive RGB lighting or features irrelevant to ergonomics if budget is tight. Focus spending on the structural and mechanical elements that directly impact comfort and health.
Adapting Your Workflow and Environment
Complementary Ergonomic Practices
A keyboard alone isn’t a magic solution. Integrate it with proper chair height (feet flat, knees ~90 degrees), monitor positioned at eye level to avoid neck strain, and a mouse positioned close to the keyboard at the same height. Practice the “hand float” technique—keeping wrists hovering slightly above the desk, supported by arm movement, rather than resting heavily on a wrist rest while typing.
The Adjustment Period: Patience is Key
Transitioning to an ergonomic layout, especially split or ortholinear, requires retraining muscle memory. Expect a dip in typing speed and some initial awkwardness for days or even weeks. Be patient, start with shorter sessions, and gradually increase usage. Focus on posture and comfort over speed during this period. Persistence pays off with significant long-term gains.
Frequently Asked Questions
Frequently Asked Questions
Is an ergonomic keyboard necessary if I don’t have pain yet?
Yes, prevention is crucial. These keyboards promote neutral postures that reduce the cumulative strain causing RSI, even before pain manifests. It’s proactive health maintenance for a demanding job.
How long does it take to adjust to a split or ortholinear keyboard?
Adjustment varies, but expect 1-4 weeks for basic proficiency and several months to regain previous speed. Initial discomfort is common; consistent, patient practice yields the best results.
Can ergonomic keyboards actually improve my typing speed for coding?
While initial speed drops during adjustment, many developers report increased sustainable speed long-term due to reduced fatigue and more efficient finger movements on optimized layouts.
Do I need a special mouse to go with an ergonomic keyboard?
While not mandatory, an ergonomic mouse (vertical, trackball) complements the keyboard by keeping your wrist neutral during mouse use, completing the ergonomic workstation setup.
Are wireless ergonomic keyboards reliable for coding?
Yes, modern Bluetooth and 2.4GHz wireless offer near-zero latency suitable for most developers. Prioritize models with strong wireless stability and long battery life if going cordless.
How important is tenting for someone with shoulder pain?
Very important. Tenting reduces shoulder internal rotation and hunching, directly addressing a common cause of shoulder and upper back tension in desk workers.
Can I use my favorite mechanical switches on an ergonomic keyboard?
Absolutely. Most quality ergonomic models allow switch customization (via hot-swap sockets or desoldering), letting you choose your preferred tactile, linear, or clicky feel.
Do ergonomic keyboards work well with Vim or other modal editors?
Generally yes, especially models with strong programmability. Remapping keys or creating layers can optimize common Vim commands, though ortholinear layouts may require specific adaptation for hjkl navigation.
Is a palm rest necessary with an ergonomic keyboard?
Use a palm rest only during pauses, not while actively typing. It should support the heel of your hand, keeping wrists neutral. Some ergonomic keyboards integrate palm rests designed for this specific purpose.
What’s the single biggest mistake people make when buying their first ergonomic keyboard?
Skipping hands-on testing or ignoring adjustability. Choosing solely based on price or looks without considering personal fit and the need for tenting/splay adjustment often leads to discomfort and abandonment.